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Piri Reis

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This article is about the Turkish admiral. For submarines named for him, see TCG Pirireis.

Piri Reis
A color photograph of a black statue of a bearded and turbaned man
Statue of Piri Reis in Karaman, Turkey
Born
Muhiddin Piri[1]

c. 1465–1470
Ottoman Empire
Died1553[2]
Cairo, Egypt Eyalet, Ottoman Empire
Cause of death
Execution by beheading
Notable work
RelativesKemal Reis (uncle)

Piri Reis (Turkish: Pîrî Reis; born Muhiddin Piri; c. 1470–1553) was an Ottoman Turkish cartographer, admiral, navigator, and corsair. He is best known for his 1513 world map and his nautical atlas, the Kitab-ı Bahriye (Book of the Sea). His maps combined classical sources, firsthand seafaring experience, and new European discoveries, engaging more directly with the Age of Discovery than other Ottoman works from the period.

Piri Reis began his maritime career sailing with his uncle, the corsair Kemal Reis, with whom he entered Ottoman naval service. He later commanded his own ship in the Ottoman–Venetian wars and after his uncle's death, began the cartographic work for which he became best known. After taking part in the 1517 conquest of Egypt, Piri Reis presented his world map and later his atlases as gifts to the Ottoman Sultans. After promotion to grand admiral of the Ottoman fleet in the Indian Ocean, he led successful campaigns in the Red Sea, but was executed following his retreat from the siege of Hormuz Island at the mouth of the Persian Gulf.

During his lifetime, Piri Reis' cartography received little appreciation, but many copies of the Kitab-ı Bahriye were produced after his death. The 1929 rediscovery of his first world map, during renovations to the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, increased interest in his work in part because it cites many contemporary Portuguese explorers and a now-lost map by Christopher Columbus. The rediscovery made his career a point of national pride for Turkey. Although the map has been the subject of fringe theories based on the disproven hypothesis that it depicted an ice-free Antarctica, studies have shown no significant similarities between its southern continent and Antarctica's coast beneath the ice. Nevertheless, this speculation has broadened popular interest in Piri Reis' cartography.

Early life and piracy

[edit]

The only surviving primary sources covering Piri Reis' early life are his own cartographic works, in which he identifies himself as Muhiddin Piri, son of Hacı Mehmed.[3] Piri Reis was likely born between 1465 and 1470 in Gelibolu, Turkey, also known as Gallipoli.[4] This was a major naval base for the Ottoman Empire, a Muslim power in the Mediterranean spanning from Anatolia in Asia into Eastern Europe.[5] Sixteenth-century Ottoman historian Ibn Kemal wrote that Gelibolu had a strong maritime tradition where the town's children were "rocked to sleep with the lullaby of the sea and of the ships day and night"—a culture that, according to Turkish historian Afet İnan, shaped Piri's upbringing.[6]

His uncle Kemal Reis was a notable corsair, a type of state-sanctioned pirate, acting often along religious lines in the Mediterranean.[7] Serving under Kemal, he later earned the rank Reis himself, equivalent to a captain in the Ottoman Navy.[8]

Cartography scholar Ibrahim Yilmaz suggests Piri Reis' parents likely died around 1481, after which he began working aboard his uncle's ship.[9][a] Years later, Piri Reis described how, shortly after he began sailing with his uncle, a storm nearly destroyed Kemal Reis' galley in a small stony harbor near Mount Athos in modern-day Greece. While they were sheltering from rough seas, Eastern Orthodox monks came to the water with ropes and tied the galley down until the storm passed.[13]

Under Sultan Bayezid II's approval, Piri Reis sailed west with Kemal Reis and other Ottoman corsairs to fight Catholic forces and aid the Emirate of Granada, the last Muslim-ruled territory in Iberia.[14] As a teenager, he helped his uncle bombard the forces besieging Málaga in 1487.[15]

By the end of 1487, Málaga fell to the Spanish, but Barbary corsairs based in northern Africa and led by Kemal Reis continued to threaten European maritime traffic.[16][b] Piri Reis later wrote, "We sailed on the Mediterranean and fought the enemies of our religion mercilessly."[23] During the winters, he and his uncle took shelter in harbors along the Barbary Coast of North Africa, including Béjaïa in modern-day Algeria.[24] For six years, they sailed north to raid the coasts of Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily.[25]

Nevertheless, Granada itself fell by 1492.[26] Many Muslims fled Iberia rather than remain as Mudéjars, permitted to practice their religion but denied full participation in Catholic Spanish society. When Spain expelled its Jewish population outright in 1492, Sultan Bayezid II instructed Kemal Reis to aid religious refugees.[27] In response, Piri Reis ferried Muslims and Jews from Spain to North Africa.[23]

[edit]
Map of the Venetian lagoon with major rivers, canals, and fortifications
Venice as depicted in the Kitab-ı Bahriye

Like many Ottoman corsairs of the period, Piri Reis and his uncle were recruited into the Ottoman Navy by Bayezid II.[28][c] For Kemal Reis and other Turkish mariners of the period, the boundaries between outright piracy, state-sponsored corsairing, and formal naval service were fluid.[30]

When the Ottoman Empire imprisoned Kemal Reis for piracy in 1495, rather than sentencing him, the sultan gave him an official position in the navy.[31] As recorded in the Kitab-ı Bahriye, Kemal Reis and Piri Reis advised the sultan to take the strategically valuable island of Rhodes. Located just 20 km (12 mi) off the southwestern coast of Anatolia—along sea routes between the empire's capital in Europe and its ports along the Mediterranean—Rhodes was capable of threatening the empire's maritime communications. They also advocated seizing the Venetian coastal fortresses of the Peloponnese.[32]

In the early 1500s, Piri Reis fought in the Ottoman–Venetian wars as a captain under his uncle's command.[23] Like other Ottoman captains, he operated a galley, a shallow oar-driven warship well suited to the Mediterranean coasts.[33] During the 1499 Battle of Zonchio, Piri Reis sailed in a fleet of about 270 ships that broke through the 150-ship Venetian fleet to enter the Gulf of Corinth, forcing the Venetian governor to surrender.[34] Kemal Reis led the Ottomans to further victories at Modon and Navarino, after which the Ottoman Navy began to consolidate control over the Eastern Mediterranean.[35]

Piri Reis returned to the Western Mediterranean, raiding the coasts of Spain and nearby islands in 1501 alongside his uncle.[36] In a naval battle near Valencia, they captured a Spaniard who said he had sailed with Columbus. This Spanish sailor likely possessed an early map of the Americas that Piri Reis would later use as a source for his maps. They took exotic New World materials including parrot feathers and unusual black stones (possibly obsidian) that could cut metal.[37] In 1502, they returned to Constantinople and soon resumed hostilities with Venice.[36]

After his uncle died in a shipwreck in 1510 or 1511, Piri Reis returned to Gelibolu to focus on his cartographic work.[38][d] There, he completed the world map for which he is best known today. Dated to Muharram 919 AH (March 1513 AD), the manuscript depicts the recently explored shores of the Americas and Africa.[41] Before the year was out, Piri Reis returned to sailing for the Ottomans under Hayreddin Barbarossa along the North African coast.[42]

During the 1516–1517 Ottoman conquest of Egypt, Piri Reis commanded the Ottoman ships blockading Alexandria. After the Ottoman victory, Piri Reis took the opportunity to present his 1513 world map to Sultan Selim I (r. 1512–1520).[43] How Selim used the map is unknown, as it vanished from history until its rediscovery centuries later.[44]

Map of western Anatolia and the Greek islands with Arabic labels
Rhodes (largest island outlined in red) south of Anatolia (outlined in dark blue)

His relationship with the Ottoman state frayed after the conquest of Egypt. Venetian documents report that Piri Reis was among several Ottoman captains aligned with Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis who left the Ottoman Navy.[45] Contemporary historian Marino Sanuto the Younger wrote in February 1518 that the former Ottoman captains "rebelled against the sultan" and "were able to land 800 men" on the island of Chios to seize a castle and "400 of the sultan's subjects".[46] When the future doge of Venice, ambassador Alvise I Mocenigo, returned from a trip to Constantinople, he reported that the ship's captain intentionally took him through a storm to avoid capture by Piri Reis. Their rebellion and piracy were short-lived. Kurtoğlu was given command of an Ottoman fleet in 1518, and Piri Reis was back in Ottoman service before the conquest of Rhodes.[45]

Whatever prompted his brief defection, Piri Reis rejoined the Ottoman Navy by 1522 and took part in Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent's Siege of Rhodes, for which he had advocated.[47] Controlled by the Knights of St. John, the island provided shelter to Christian pirates.[48] Piri Reis' first version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye—a nautical atlas dedicated and gifted to Suleiman—included advice on conquering the island.[49] The second version, completed after the conquest, only discussed the siege in terms of acquiring drinking water.[50]

Suleiman's reign marked a shift towards power concentrating among advisors, governors, royal family members, and viziers (high-ranking executive officers akin to ministers). The sultan's childhood friend Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha (pasha being the highest title the sultan bestowed on Ottoman officials) rose to become the Ottoman grand vizier, or chief minister.[51] When putting down Hain Ahmed Pasha's 1524 rebellion in Egypt, Ibrahim rode aboard the navy's flagship, commanded by Piri Reis.[52][53] The longer second version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye resulted from a conversation with the grand vizier,[54] during which Piri Reis said they discussed cartography after Ibrahim asked him about the maps and charts used aboard the ship.[55] Ibrahim commissioned Piri Reis to create an expanded version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye,[56] which he finished and presented to the sultan by 1526.[57] Ibrahim Pasha was executed in 1536, and no surviving works of Piri Reis' cartography date past this point.[58]

During the 1530s, Piri Reis was active in the Eastern Mediterranean and became a threat to Venice, which still controlled the islands of Cyprus and Crete.[59] In 1532, he led five galleys and three fustas (smaller, more maneuverable raiding vessels) against Dalmatian pirates in the Adriatic, the arm of the Mediterranean leading to Venice.[60] Although the Venetians and the Ottomans were officially at peace in 1533, Venice still had interests in the Levant and supported a local uprising at Coron in the Peloponnese. Piri Reis attacked with a squadron of ten galleys and five fustas, unsuccessfully bombarding the castle and surviving a cannon shot to his own galley. In 1536, before the Ottomans and Venetians were officially at war again, Piri Reis seized the galley Contarina and its cargo of precious stones near Venetian Cyprus, refusing to return the gems on the grounds that the ship had been carrying Muslim prisoners. When the Third Ottoman–Venetian War broke out in 1537, he chased down Venetian ships in the Eastern Mediterranean.[61]

Although peace between the empire and Venice was officially restored in 1540, Piri Reis attacked the Venetian ship Liona in late 1546, killing twelve sailors, wounding twelve more, and taking others captive. Venice's diplomat in Constantinople obtained an imperial order for the release of the captured sailors, but Grand Vizier Rüstem Pasha sided with Piri Reis' counter-claim that the Venetians had been the aggressors.[62]

After the death of Yahudi Sinan, who was organizing a raid against the Portuguese, Piri Reis was promoted to Hind Kapudan-ı Derya or grand admiral of the Ottoman fleet in the Indian Ocean.[63][e] Before departing for Egypt, Piri Reis sold off his properties in Constantinople: his home, garden, and vineyard. He left with his family and all of his money, suggesting he did not plan to return.[68] Piri Reis then took command of the empire's Indian Ocean fleet, based out of Suez, Egypt, a significant port in the Gulf of Suez at the northern tip of the Red Sea.[63]

Grand admiral of the Indian Ocean fleet

[edit]
Port of Aden, built into the crater of an extinct volcano in a crescent-shaped bay with Portuguese ships at anchor
Aden as illustrated in the 16th-century Civitates Orbis Terrarum

When Piri Reis arrived in the Red Sea, the Portuguese Navy employed sailing ships capable of navigating the open ocean, while the Ottoman Navy relied mainly on galleys, which were more effective along coasts. This limited Ottoman naval warfare to the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the narrow straits around Arabia. Cut off from the waters of the Mediterranean by the narrow Isthmus of Suez, the Red Sea required a separate fleet and supply chain.[69]

Just prior to Piri Reis' promotion to admiral in Egypt, the empire lost Aden, its only port on the Indian Ocean.[70] A disastrous Ottoman campaign to expand territory inland had caused a rebellion, and Aden's urban leaders had ceded their city to a local Arab chief who sought Portuguese protection. The most senior remaining Ottoman leader in Yemen, Özdemir Pasha, wrote to the governor of Egypt to seek his assistance.[71] At that time Piri Reis was leading a galley squadron based out of Alexandria, and he was the most senior naval officer in the region.[72]

Piri Reis left Suez to aid Özdemir Pasha with a fleet of 60 ships on 29 October 1547.[73] The fleet landed reinforcements on the shore outside the range of Aden's cannons and hauled artillery onto the hills overlooking the city. Then they continued to Aden's crescent-shaped bay to besiege the city by sea. The two Portuguese ships that had arrived under the command of Dom Paio de Noronha were not enough to stop the Ottoman Navy or the Ottoman land army that quickly overran the city.[74] On 26 February 1548, the forces under Piri Reis recaptured the citadel of Aden.[75] Additional Portuguese reinforcements arrived too late. In January 1549, a small group of Portuguese ships found the Ottoman Navy already in the bay and attempted to flee, but Piri Reis' fleet pursued them, captured the sailors, and burned their ships.[76]

Map of the voyage from Suez to Basra; full details at the link and in this section
Piri Reis' expedition against Hormuz (1552)

Following his success at Aden, Piri Reis was rewarded with a timar—a type of Ottoman land grant—worth 100,000 silver coins and given the assignment that would lead to his death.[58] Sultan Suleiman instructed him to take Hormuz Island, which Portugal had controlled since 1515. Located at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, the island could control sea traffic between the gulf and the broader Indian Ocean.[77] Taking Bahrain Island was a secondary objective. In April 1552, Piri Reis left Suez with 25 galleys, five sailing ships, and 850 soldiers.[78] While the fleet was at sea, Rüstem Pasha, who had previously offered Piri Reis protection during his dispute with Venice, was dismissed from his position as Grand Vizier. Historian Maria Pedani has suggested that losing this court ally may have weakened Piri Reis' political position as the Hormuz expedition faltered.[2]

The Sultan's official plan had been for Piri Reis to slip past the Portuguese unnoticed, and to merge his Suez fleet with a recently formed Ottoman fleet in the Persian Gulf. However, a Portuguese galley captained by Simão da Costa spotted the Suez fleet and warned Hormuz in advance, so Piri Reis decided to attack Portuguese strongholds directly.[79] In August, the Ottoman fleet took Muscat after a one-month siege. When the Portuguese garrison surrendered, the Ottoman forces under Piri Reis took them prisoner and forced them to work the oars on galleys in the fleet.[80]

The Ottomans pillaged the area, destroyed fortifications, and continued to Hormuz.[81] The expedition cleared the Arabian Peninsula coast of Portuguese occupation,[82] and Portuguese forces prepared for the coming attack on Hormuz by evacuating most of the island. Wealthy residents took refuge on the nearby island of Qeshm, and the Portuguese soldiers and the Hormuz royal family retreated to the fortress.[80]

Piri Reis' forces entered the city of Hormuz in September 1552, but could not take the fortress.[80] They besieged and bombarded it for several weeks.[83] The Ottoman forces ran low on gunpowder during the siege and Piri Reis wrote to Basra for supplies, but the Ottoman governor there, Kubad Pasha, sent nothing.[84] Sixteenth-century Portuguese historian Diogo do Couto wrote that Kubad Pasha was instructed to assemble a naval force large enough to deliver 15,000 men to Hormuz, but these reinforcements never arrived.[85] Acting on the advice of the imprisoned Portuguese commander from Muscat, Piri Reis grew concerned about a possible Portuguese counterattack and lifted the siege.[86]

The Ottomans looted the city of Hormuz, plundered the nearby island of Qeshm, and retreated into the Gulf with over a million pieces of gold.[80] A letter from the Portuguese governor inside the fortress, dated 31 October 1552, said that the walls were nearly collapsing, but the Ottomans ran low on "munitions, gunpowder, and other war materials".[87] The Portuguese governor of India, Afonso de Noronha [es], organized a fleet of 40 ships led by his nephew that reached Hormuz a month after Piri Reis' departure.[88]

The Ottoman fleet retreated into the Persian Gulf, bypassed its secondary target, Bahrain, and arrived at Basra by 1553.[89] They received a cold welcome from Kubad Pasha, who had failed to send supplies during the siege and now denied Piri Reis rowers for his galleys.[90] Soucek suggested that hostility between the two men "may have been at the root" of Piri Reis' decision to return to Egypt quickly as well as the "accusatory report the pasha probably sent to Constantinople."[91][f] Leaving most of the fleet behind, Piri Reis returned with only two ships in 1553.[80] The gold he brought back to Egypt played a role in his death sentence.[93]

Accusations of looting and bribery led to Piri Reis' execution in Cairo.[94] Ottoman histories faulted him for plundering Qeshm.[93] Although allegations of outright bribery were unjustified, they may have been believed at the time of his execution. Contemporary Ottoman historian İbrahim Peçevi wrote that "although the bribe charge was implausible – the [sultan] deigned to believe it and issued an order of execution."[95] Venetian diplomats in Constantinople sent a letter dated 15 November 1553 stating that Piri Reis had been "charged with having raised the siege of the fortress of Hormuz because of bribery" and replaced by Seydi Ali Reis. The sultan had him beheaded in Cairo sometime during 1553.[2] When a delegation from Hormuz traveled to Constantinople to demand compensation for the looted gold shortly after Piri Reis' death, they were dismissed for lack of proof. According to Soucek, this "suggests that no effort had been made to probe" the allegations against Piri Reis before his execution.[95]

Soon after his death, Piri Reis' fleet in Basra was destroyed by the Portuguese. Seydi Ali Reis attempted to return the fleet to Suez but the Portuguese intercepted them and the Ottoman ships were captured, destroyed, or swept out to sea.[96] Piri Reis was possibly survived by a son, Mehmed Reis, known only from a single portolan map of the Aegean.[97]

Works

[edit]

Piri Reis is remembered more today for his cartography than the conflicts that defined his life.[98] All of Piri Reis' surviving maps are portolan charts, nautical maps with compass roses from which lines of bearing radiate. Widely produced and used by European navigators, they were designed for navigation by dead reckoning, a method by which a ship's location is estimated from its direction, speed, and elapsed time. Portolan charts employ a windrose network—a web of lines radiating from the compass roses and matching the directions of a compass—rather than a projected longitude and latitude grid. Piri Reis' maps employed standard portolan symbols to indicate hazards, such as dots for shallow water and sand banks, and crosses for rocks and reefs.[99]

Piri Reis' works were unusual in 16th-century Turkish and broader Islamic cartography for their deep engagement with the European Age of Discovery.[100] Three of his works have survived in some form:[101] fragments of his 1513 and 1528 world maps, held in the Topkapı Palace Museum in Istanbul,[102][103] along with copies of the Kitab-ı Bahriye in libraries and museums around the world, though his original manuscripts are lost.[104] His first world map famously cites a now-lost map by Christopher Columbus.[105] The second edition of the Kitab-ı Bahriye incorporated information from new Portuguese and Spanish voyages, including Vasco da Gama's discovery of a sea route to India,[56] and the 1528 world map cited new Portuguese voyages to Labrador and Newfoundland.[106]

His works also reveal his perspective on European discoveries.[107] According to historian Giancarlo Casale, the 1513 world map and especially the Kitab-ı Bahriye preface rhetorically undermine the significance of European discoveries by reframing them as the rediscovery of ancient knowledge. For instance, he invokes Alexander the Great when explaining contemporary European discoveries.[108] In the Quran, "Dhu al-Qarnayn"—identified with Alexander the Great in the Turkish literary tradition—traveled to every corner of the world, thereby defining its limits.[109] Marginal inscriptions on the world map mention "charts drawn in the days of Alexander" and a book that "fell into the hands" of Columbus, describing lands "at the end of the Western Sea."[110][111] In the 1526 version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye, Piri Reis explicitly credits European discoveries to lost works created during Alexander's legendary voyages:[112]

My friend, the Franks both read and write everything there is to know about the science of the sea. But do not suppose that they invented such knowledge on their own; and if you wish, I will explain why. During his time, the famous ruler Alexander traveled over all the seas, and whatever he saw and whatever he heard he had recorded, item by item, by a competent person.

— Piri Reis, Kitab-ı Bahriye (1526)[113]

1513 world map

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Main article: Piri Reis map
Map of the Atlantic with Arabic writing
Surviving fragment of the first world map of Piri Reis (1513)

The 1513 Piri Reis map is a world map drawn on gazelle skin and shaped by the natural curve of the animal's shoulder.[114] Roughly one-third of the map survives, housed in the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.[115] The map's coastlines are synthesized from a range of contemporary and classical sources.[116] The finished manuscript was dated to the Islamic year 919 AH (1513 AD).[117] After the empire's conquest of Egypt, Piri Reis presented the map to Sultan Selim I, but it vanished from history for centuries.[118][44]

When rediscovered in 1929,[119] the remaining fragment attracted international attention for including a partial copy of an otherwise lost map by Christopher Columbus.[120][g] Though he created at least eight known charts of his discoveries, no originals survive.[126] Piri Reis' 1513 map contains extensive notes in Ottoman Turkish, the longest of which credits part of the Americas to one of these now-lost maps. According to this inscription, Piri Reis and his uncle captured a Spaniard who had explored the Americas with Columbus and possessed one of his charts.[127]

The unusual placenames and cartographic misconceptions indicate that Piri Reis likely did use a map composed during one of Columbus' early voyages to the Americas.[128] For example, on the mainland in the northwest, a stretch of coast is labeled Ornofay, a term recorded by Columbus but not found on other maps.[129][h] The northwestern coast combines features of Central America and Cuba into a single body of land.[131] South of Ornofay, Puerto Grande (the name Columbus assigned to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba on his second voyage) is found on no other surviving maps.[132] Further south is Veragua, an early name for Panama.[133]

Side by side outlines of the map's depiction of the Caribbean and the Behaim globe's depiction of Asia's east coast show different coastlines but a similar arrangement of land masses.
Comparison of Piri Reis' Caribbean (left) to Martin Behaim's Asia (right)

Scholars attribute this peculiar arrangement of the Caribbean to Columbus's erroneous claim that he had found a new route to Asia.[134] During the 1494 expedition, he was so adamant about this, that he had his men sign formal documents declaring Cuba to be an Asian peninsula, under penalty of cutting out their tongues.[135][i] As an example of this, the caption near islands at the north edge of the map states, "It is in Asia."[138] However, the largest island, oriented vertically, is labeled "The Island of Hispaniola" and merges early knowledge of Hispaniola with Marco Polo's description of Japan.[139] Historian Joaquim Gaspar has suggested that Columbus' creation of a map with Hispaniola rotated to match Japan was an attempt to motivate his own men with the unattainable promise of wealth upon reaching India, noting the difficulty in navigating by compass from a map with contradictory norths.[140] Alternatively, McIntosh suggests that Columbus composed two maps: an unofficial map for navigation and an official map presented as evidence of his continued claims of having reached the Far East.[141] The map's depiction of the Caribbean is primitive, even compared to the Juan de la Cosa map, produced around 1500. It preserves potentially the earliest surviving cartographic record of the New World discoveries.[142]

By contrast, the depiction of South America, cited to recent Portuguese voyages, is quite detailed and accurate for its time.[143] The southernmost conclusively identified feature on the map is a stretch of recently-explored Brazilian coastline, which includes Cabo Frio (Kav Friyo on the map), possibly the earliest depiction of Rio de Janeiro, and what is likely the area around Cananéia, labeled Katino on the map.[144] Beyond this point, the coast curves sharply east.[145] There are two competing and overlapping explanations for the map's southern coast.[146] Most scholars interpret this southern coast as a version of Terra Australis, a southern landmass once hypothesized to balance the known land in the Northern Hemisphere.[147] It may also depict the coast of South America bent to fit the natural curve of the skin the map was drawn on.[145] However, there is no textual evidence that the map represents land south of present-day Cananéia.[148]

The map is visually distinct from European portolan charts and shows influences from the tradition of Islamic miniature painting.[149] Piri Reis adapted Classical and Islamic iconography to the portolan charting of newly discovered coasts.[150] Historian Karen Pinto argues that the legendary creatures on the map signal a new conception of the Atlantic as another navigable sea. In medieval Islamic cartography, an impassable "Encircling Ocean" surrounded the Old World, its edges populated by terrifying monsters from Classical antiquity. Piri Reis transposes these creatures across the Atlantic and characterizes them as friendly. The Blemmyes, headless cannibals typically drawn menacing the fringes of medieval mappamundi, appear on his 1513 map as "harmless souls" atop the mountains in South America.[151] Due to its synthetic nature—harmonizing diverse and contradictory sources—the map remains a valuable but enigmatic record of lost primary data, subject to continued investigation.[152] In contrast, his later Kitab-ı Bahriye was characterized by Piri Reis' firsthand experience sailing the Mediterranean as a corsair and naval captain.[153]

Kitab-ı Bahriye

[edit]
Main article: Kitab-ı Bahriye
Large book open with Arabic text on one page and a multicolor illustrated map opposite
A copy of the Kitab-ı Bahriye open to the page on Corsica

The Kitab-ı Bahriye (Ottoman Turkish: كتاب بحرية), or Book of the Sea, is the most detailed portolan atlas of the 16th century.[154][j] It combines information from a range of sources, including Piri Reis' own experience. Along the coast of North Africa, the section on Tunisia relies heavily on his personal observations.[156] For example, the description of the Galite Islands just off the Tunisian coast notes the dangers posed by southern winds; the availability of wild goats; and the quality of the fresh water, which Piri Reis compares in flavor to rose water.[157] In the preface and epilogue, Piri Reis expressed two goals: to create a practical manual for other sailors and to earn recognition and reward for himself. The epilogue admits the book is not free from errors and encourages readers to correct them.[158]

The main part of both versions is a nautical guide to the Mediterranean Sea. Separate chapters cover different locations with corresponding charts. Piri Reis said that he composed an atlas because any single map would have had limited space for written details, whereas some "knowledge cannot be known from maps; it must be explained." There are 130 chapters in the first version and 210 in the second.[104] The chapters start at the Dardanelles, the narrow strait separating Asia from Europe, and move counter-clockwise around the Mediterranean.[159] Each map has a compass rose indicating North for that page.[160][154] Scale is indicated only in the textual descriptions, not with scale bars.[154] Written when Ottoman sailors relied on oar-driven galleys, the Kitab-ı Bahriye reflects their needs and capabilities, such as information on coastal waters, safe harbors, hazards, and sources of fresh water.[161]

There are two versions of the book, both dedicated to Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.[104] The first version was composed between 1511 and 1521.[162][k] The second, expanded version was commissioned by the grand vizier and presented to the sultan in 1526.[56] It begins with a longer introduction written in verse,[56] offering information on storms, winds, navigation with a compass and by the stars, reading nautical charts, and the oceans.[104] It provides the first detailed Ottoman description of the Indian Ocean,[56] and gives special attention to Hormuz Island at the strait leading into the Persian Gulf.[164]

The book achieved fame only after Piri Reis' death.[165] The known surviving manuscripts are all copies created beginning in the latter half of the 16th century.[155] At least some portion of the book has been translated into English, modern Turkish, Greek, French, German, and Italian.[166]

1528 world map

[edit]
Map of the Caribbean and other areas in the New World
Surviving fragment of the second world map of Piri Reis (1528)

Piri Reis compiled a more accurate second world map in 1528, of which only the northwestern corner survives.[167] As with his 1513 map, it has calligraphic inscriptions in Ottoman Turkish. Both maps have a single inscription in Arabic: a colophon recording details of the manuscripts' production, likely handwritten by Piri Reis himself.[168] The colophon records that the second map was also compiled in Gelibolu.[167][169]

Like his earlier work, the 1528 map is a portolan chart. Although such charts were typically made for use aboard ships, the map's elaborate details indicate that it was created for a wealthy patron.[170] It has a single line of latitude, the Tropic of Cancer, drawn as a thick band slightly south of its true position, running behind Cuba, south of the Yucatan, and into the map's ornate border.[171]

The 1528 map is more accurate than Piri Reis' earlier world map and reflects new discoveries in the Americas.[172] Its depiction of the newly explored regions of Greenland, Newfoundland, and Florida suggests that the cartography relied on Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian maps from the 1520s.[167] Hispaniola is correctly oriented relative to Cuba, while Cuba, labeled "Isla di Vana," is accurately depicted as an island in the Caribbean.[173] An inscription notes that a traveler crossed Central America to reach the sea, likely Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513.[174]

Unlike the 1513 map, unexplored regions are left blank, marking a clear shift away from speculative cartography.[175] An inscription in the blank space behind the Atlantic coast of Newfoundland concludes with the explanation, "Only the places known are sketched."[176] Likewise, only the explored southern coastline of Florida is shown, while the remainder is left ambiguous, potentially representing either an island or a peninsula. The Padrón Real, the Spanish Empire's master chart, continuously updated with information from new voyages, included this same ambiguity until 1520 and influenced Italian cartography.[177] These changes demonstrate that Piri Reis was actively following European voyages of discovery.[172]

Legacy

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Bust in Gelibolu captioned, "Piri Reis 1470 to 1553"
Bust of Piri Reis in Gelibolu

Piri Reis' cartography received limited appreciation during his lifetime. Soucek said that his works "show that although the Ottoman Empire had the potential to participate in the discoveries, its ruling elite spurned the attempt to blaze a trail in this direction."[178] For example, Ottoman historian Cengiz Orhonlu [tr], examining 16th-century Turkish authors who wrote about Piri Reis' execution, found that they criticized his performance during the Siege of Hormuz but did not discuss his maps or writing.[179] Piri Reis was not regarded especially highly as a seafarer by Turkish contemporaries. His reputation was overshadowed by that of his uncle, and both were surpassed by later Ottoman sailors like the Barbarossas.[180]

In the 21st century, Piri Reis is remembered as a cartographer more than a corsair or an admiral.[181] Christine Isom-Verhaaren argues that the Kitab-ı Bahriye offers within its navigational details a snapshot of the Mediterranean world at a point of major geopolitical transformations. Piri Reis himself recorded his firsthand experiences of the fall of Muslim power in Iberia, the rise of Habsburg power in Europe, the discovery of the Americas, and the Ottoman conquest of the Eastern Mediterranean.[182]

The 1513 world map disappeared from the historical record until its rediscovery centuries later,[44] and there is no evidence that either version of his atlas circulated outside the royal palace prior to 1550.[165] Copies produced after Piri Reis' death were often created for their aesthetic value rather than practical navigation.[12] No Turkish school of cartography or navigation emerged to build on his work.[183] Murat Reis the Elder's expedition to the Canary Islands and the 1586 Sack of Lanzarote were some of the few times when Piri Reis' Atlantic cartography was likely used by the Ottoman Navy.[184] The empire's navy—even during the Canary Islands expedition—remained largely composed of oar-driven galleys after the point when other naval powers were moving to sailing ships suited to the open oceans.[184] Ottoman scholar Kâtip Çelebi built on the Kitab-ı Bahriye in his 17th-century work, Müntehab-ı Bahriyye. Çelebi added new charts of his own, and he updated the atlas's maps and prose, drawing on Western sources.[185] However, by the 18th century major works of cartography from Western Europe were being translated into Turkish.[186]

When Piri Reis' world map was unearthed in 1929, it received international media attention for containing the surviving piece of an otherwise lost map of Christopher Columbus.[120] The Empire had been defeated in 1920, and the current Republic of Turkey was founded within its diminished borders just six years before the discovery.[187] Turkey's first president, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, saw the map as an example of the Turkish people's potential to build a modern nation.[188] He took an interest in the map and initiated projects to publish facsimiles and conduct research.[189] Discovered during Atatürk's reforms to modernize Turkey, it became a point of national pride, and its rediscovery sparked interest in the Kitab-ı Bahriye.[190] A facsimile of the book's second version was published by the Turkish Historical Society in 1935,[191] and a four-volume facsimile with photographic quality was published in 1988.[192] Ships and submarines have been named after Piri Reis, including the RV K. Piri Reis and TCG Pirireis;[193] and the Piri Reis University for maritime studies was founded in 2008.[194] Historian Karen Pinto has commented that popular interest in his cartography has contributed to Piri Reis becoming "more famous than the Sultan who" executed him.[195]

[edit]

Piri Reis' 1513 world map has inspired pseudoscientific claims and appeared in broader pop culture as an unsolved mystery. For example, civil engineer Arlington Mallery, Professor Charles Hapgood, and Hapgood's students developed the hypothesis that the 1513 world map exceeded 16th-century map-making abilities and contained a cartographic depiction of an ice-free Antarctic coast. In Hapgood's 1966 book Maps of the Ancient Sea Kings, he claims that islands along the map's southern Atlantic shore depict what are now ice-covered mountains in Antarctica's Queen Maud Land region.[196]

Hapgood's book received skepticism for its lack of evidence and its reliance on cataclysmic pole shift, the disproven geological hypothesis that Earth's entire crust could slip around the planet.[197] Also, according to geologist Paul Heinrich, the book did not account for post-glacial rebound, the process by which land rises after glacial ice melts away. Heinrich further noted that the 1949 survey initially cited by Mallery could not measure even one percent of the area drawn in the Piri Reis map. Subsequent studies have shown no significant similarities between the map's southern coastline and Antarctica's subglacial coast.[198] A 2024 study indicates that the Antarctic ice sheet began forming approximately 34 million years ago, surrounding the continent by 7 million years ago, thereby predating the emergence of modern humans by millions of years.[199] Although the 1513 world map has been described by some authors as anomalous in its accuracy, it is no more precise than other 16th-century manuscript maps.[200]

Hapgood's claims have nevertheless been uncritically repeated by Erich von Däniken in support of ancient astronauts and by Graham Hancock in support of an advanced lost civilization.[201] The map and the pole shift hypothesis were key plot elements in Allan W. Eckert's science fiction novel The HAB Theory.[202]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ It is unclear from historical records how Muhiddin Piri was related to Kemal Reis, whether he was Kemal Reis' paternal or maternal nephew. In his 1513 world map, Muhiddin Piri described himself as Kemal Reis' biraderzade, or brother's son.[10] In his 1528 world map, he wrote in the colophon, "Harrerehu hüvelehu hakir piri reis bin el haci Mehmet el mütehir birader zade-i merhum reis gazi Kemal an ehri Gelibolu, sene hamse selâsin ve tisa mia" as McIntosh transcribes it.[11] Historian Svat Soucek translates this colophon as, "Drawn by the lowly Piri Reis, son of el-Haci Mehmed, known as the paternal nephew of the late Reis Gazi Kemal, from the city of Gallipoli, in the year of 935"[12] However, Pedani notes that 17th-century Turkish scholar Kâtip Çelebi wrote, "Piri reis Kemal reis'in hem şirezadesidir", which she translates as "Piri Reis the son of Kemal Reis's sister". The number and gender of Kemal Reis' siblings are unknown; the only family member mentioned in Venetian documents is a cognato, or brother-in-law, named Eustachio Sparcina, who was arrested for spying, tortured, and released.[10]
  2. ^ Sources vary in their terminology for this portion of Piri Reis' career. Most use the term corsair.[17] Some use corsair interchangeably with privateer,[18] and a few simply call him a pirate.[19] Historian Peter Earle describes a corsair, synonymous with a privateer, as "a private individual granted a license by his sovereign to fit out a ship to attack his sovereign's enemies." Earle adds that while privateers were only licensed during times of war, corsairs were perpetually active in the Mediterranean: "For a while political wars though commonplace were intermittent, there was one war that was eternal. And that was the Holy War."[20] Soucek described the Turkish corsairs as "maritime gazis, warriors for Islam, in the central and Western Mediterranean".[21] Piri Reis described himself and his uncle as "sea gazis".[22]
  3. ^ Kemal Reis did serve in some official status in Ottoman naval forces before fighting as a corsair with Piri Reis. The 1475 Gallipoli Tahrir Register lists Kemal Reis as a galley captain, and he is recorded taking part in the campaign to take Euboea. They participated in the 1487 naval mission to assist Granada with Bayezid II's approval, though whether Kemal Reis led the expedition or was only one of the many corsairs is unclear. Piri Reis wrote that 1495 marked the beginning of his and Kemal Reis' formal service to the Ottoman sultan.[29]
  4. ^ Sources give either 1510 or 1511 as the year Kemal Reis died.[39] Kemal Reis' last recorded activities were sailing to Egypt in 1510 with requested aid against Portuguese incursions.[40] A Venetian report claims that Kemal Reis was sabotaged when İskender Ağa—a rival who became admiral of the Ottoman Navy in 1511—sent Kemal to sea in "an unsound ship". Mamluk historian Ibn Iyas recorded that news of Kemal Reis' death reached Cairo, Egypt, in February 1511.[38]
  5. ^ Sources vary in their description of Piri Reis' title. Stanford Shaw describes Piri Reis as the "admiral of the Indian Ocean fleet (Hind Kapudan-ı Derya) as well as admiral of the fleet in Egypt (Mısır Kapudan-ı Derya)".[64] Gottfried Liedl also frames Piri Reis' promotion as a dual title: "Oberbefehlshaber der osmanischen Flotte im Indischen Ozean (Hind Kapudan-i Derya) und Admiral der Flotte in Ägypten (Misir Kapudan-i Derya)".[65] Other historians frame it as a single position. According to Soucek, "he was appointed to the naval base at Suez as admiral of the Indian Ocean fleet."[66] Researcher Gregory McIntosh wrote that "Piri Reis was assigned to the Indian Ocean fleet, and he commanded the ships of the Red and Arabian Seas based at Suez."[23] Casale uses "admiral of the Indian Ocean fleet" to describe Yahudi Sinan (Sinan the Jew), Piri Reis, and Seydi Ali Reis.[67]
  6. ^ Historians have offered various possible explanations for the animosity between Piri Reis and Kubad Pasha. Ertuğrul Önalp lists: Kubad Pasha's jealousy towards Piri Reis' growing influence, a misunderstanding on how difficult it would have been to take Hormuz from the Portuguese, Piri Reis looting from Muslims in Qeshm, Piri Reis not sailing directly to Basra, and Kubad Pasha expecting some amount of the looted gold.[92]
  7. ^ There is disagreement on how much of the map draws from Columbus. Paul Kahle and most later scholars attributed everything north and west of the phantom island Antilia to this source.[121] Soucek expressed doubts about Kahle's "supposed connection",[122] and commented that "as for the 'map made by Columbus', Piri Reis' own map shows that he must also have used other sources depicting South America (specifically, the eastern bulge of the continent, thus Brazil), which Columbus could not have known" about when the map would have been produced.[123] McIntosh found that Cuba, Central America, and Hispaniola could be clearly attributed to an early map from Columbus,[124] but not necessarily the Lesser Antilles. McIntosh noted that the duplication of some features like the Virgin Islands indicated an attempt to join a second map in that area.[125]
  8. ^ Akçura transliterates the name as Kawpunta Arofi,[130] and McIntosh as Kaw Punta Orofay, with two plausible translations: "Cape Point Ornofay" or "Cuba, Point Ornofay".[129]
  9. ^ Cathay was a historical name for China, and Marco Polo described Mangi as directly south of Cathay. Columbus identified the native placename, Mago, for a region on the southern side of Cuba as Marco Polo's Mangi.[136] He wrote of Cuba, "I thought it must be the mainland, the province of Cathay... At length, after the proceeding of many leagues, and finding that nothing new presented itself, and that the coast was leading me northwards".[137]
  10. ^ Other translations of the title:
    • Book of Maritime Matters [3]
    • Book on Navigation [57]
    • Book of Navigation [155]
  11. ^ Soucek (1992) notes that work on the book began in 1511 around the same time as work on his 1513 world map.[15] Soucek (2013) gives 1520 as the completion date.[163] Hepworth (2005) says the book was "presented" in 1521.[57] Lepore, Piccardi, and Rombai (2013) say the book "appeared" in 1521.[162]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 5.
  2. ^ a b c Pedani 2015, p. 324.
  3. ^ a b Soucek 1992, p. 266.
  4. ^
  5. ^
  6. ^ İnan & Yolaç 1954, pp. 6–7.
  7. ^
  8. ^
  9. ^ Yilmaz 2010, p. 278.
  10. ^ a b Pedani 2015, pp. 320–321.
  11. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 306.
  12. ^ a b Soucek 2013, p. 141.
  13. ^ İnan 2020, pp. 9–10.
  14. ^
  15. ^ a b Soucek 1992, p. 267.
  16. ^
  17. ^
  18. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 5: "At the age of twelve, he joined the crew of his uncle, Gazi Kemal (c. 1450-1510), a corsair or privateer."
  19. ^ Shaw 1976, p. 107: "Piri Reis (1465-1554), who originated as a Mediterranean pirate under Bayezit II."
  20. ^ Earle 1970, pp. 6–7.
  21. ^ Soucek 2011, p. 115.
  22. ^ Isom-Verhaaren 2022, p. 97.
  23. ^ a b c d McIntosh 2000a, p. 6.
  24. ^
  25. ^ İnan 2020, p. 11.
  26. ^ Isom-Verhaaren 2022, pp. 91–92.
  27. ^
  28. ^
  29. ^ Isom-Verhaaren 2022, pp. 91–92.
  30. ^ Soucek 2011, pp. 9–10.
  31. ^ Pedani 2015, pp. 319–320.
  32. ^ Soucek 2004, pp. 220, 222, 232.
  33. ^
  34. ^ Isom-Verhaaren 2022, pp. 92–94.
  35. ^
  36. ^ a b Mikaberidze 2011, p. 468.
  37. ^
  38. ^ a b Isom-Verhaaren 2022, pp. 97–98.
  39. ^
  40. ^ Ágoston 2023, pp. 136–137.
  41. ^
  42. ^ Isom-Verhaaren 2022, p. 109.
  43. ^
  44. ^ a b c Soucek 1992, p. 270.
  45. ^ a b Pedani 2015, pp. 321–322.
  46. ^
    • Sebastian 1988, p. 162;
    • Sanuto 1970, p. 256: "Et hessendo zontinel porto di Schiati; hessendo esso capitano stá avisado che Peri rais et Tachialis Suliman et Bronzus se haveano fatto rebelli del Signor, metendo in terra apresso Syo da homeni 800 per haver da vele 24 fra loro, et preso uno castello a patti e tolto da anime 400 subdite dil Signor, e tolto la palandaria del passazo di Metelin; et hessendo avisato diti corsari haveano fato disegno sopra la galia di esso orator e su la sua persona, con animo di taiar a pezi dito capitano ..."
  47. ^
  48. ^ Soucek 2004, p. 221.
  49. ^
  50. ^ Isom-Verhaaren 2022, p. 101.
  51. ^
  52. ^ Casale 2010, p. 36.
  53. ^ Hess 1970, p. 1905.
  54. ^ Soucek 2013, pp. 137–138.
  55. ^ Casale 2010, pp. 36–37.
  56. ^ a b c d e Casale 2010, p. 37.
  57. ^ a b c Hepworth 2005, p. 73.
  58. ^ a b Isom-Verhaaren 2022, p. 104.
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  64. ^ Shaw 1976, p. 107.
  65. ^ Liedl 2009, pp. 61–92.
  66. ^ Soucek 2011, p. 60.
  67. ^ Casale 2010, pp. 96, 104, 110.
  68. ^ Pedani 2015, p. 323.
  69. ^ Hess 1970, pp. 1909–1910, 1916–1917.
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  71. ^ Casale 2010, pp. 84–91.
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  78. ^
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  94. ^ Soucek 2011, pp. 60–63.
  95. ^ a b Soucek 2011, p. 63: "As for the rumor that Piri Reis had accepted a bribe and therefore raised the siege, this is very unlikely."
  96. ^ Casale 2010, pp. 100–102.
  97. ^ Angelov, Bazzaz & Batsaki 2013, p. 84.
  98. ^ Isom-Verhaaren 2022, ch. 4.
  99. ^
  100. ^
  101. ^ Robinson 1996, p. 70.
  102. ^ Anatolia News Agency 2013.
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  107. ^ Casale 2019, pp. 871–877.
  108. ^ Casale 2019, pp. 871, 874–876.
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  110. ^ Akçura 1935, sec. V.
  111. ^ Akçura 1935, sec. VI.
  112. ^ Casale 2019, p. 875.
  113. ^
  114. ^
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  124. ^ McIntosh 2014, p. 372.
  125. ^ McIntosh 2000a, pp. 134–139.
  126. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 132.
  127. ^ McIntosh 2000a, pp. 9, 69–75.
  128. ^ McIntosh 2000a, ch. 10.
  129. ^ a b McIntosh 2000a, pp. 104–105.
  130. ^ Akçura 1935.
  131. ^ Gaspar 2015, pp. 1–3.
  132. ^ McIntosh 2000a, pp. 104–105.
  133. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 108.
  134. ^ McIntosh 2000a, pp. 114, 136.
  135. ^ Kahle 1933, p. 632.
  136. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 103.
  137. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 106.
  138. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 105: "Istonasia appears to be the Spanish 'Esta en Asia,'"
  139. ^ McIntosh 2000a, pp. 87–97.
  140. ^ Gaspar 2015, pp. 3–4.
  141. ^ McIntosh 2000a, pp. 136–137.
  142. ^ McIntosh 2000a, ch. 11.
  143. ^
  144. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 36.
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  146. ^ King 2022, pp. 13–25.
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  148. ^ McIntosh 2000a, pp. 37–38.
  149. ^ Pinto 2012, p. 71.
  150. ^ Pinto 2012.
  151. ^ Pinto 2012, pp. 65–90.
  152. ^ Soucek 2013, p. 140.
  153. ^ Soucek 2013, pp. 135–139.
  154. ^ a b c Goodrich 2004, pt. 1.
  155. ^ a b Goodrich 2004.
  156. ^ Soucek 1992, pp. 277–279.
  157. ^
  158. ^ Soucek 2013, p. 138.
  159. ^ İnan & Yolaç 1954, pp. 21–22.
  160. ^ Soucek 1992, p. 277.
  161. ^ Soucek 1992, pp. 273–274.
  162. ^ a b Lepore, Piccardi & Rombai 2013, p. 85.
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  164. ^ Soucek 2013, p. 139.
  165. ^ a b Casale 2010, p. 186.
  166. ^ Lepore, Piccardi & Rombai 2013, p. 86.
  167. ^ a b c McIntosh 2015, p. 303.
  168. ^
  169. ^ McIntosh 2015, pp. 303–306.
  170. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 305.
  171. ^ Tekeli 1985, p. 681.
  172. ^ a b Ayyubi 1989, p. 739.
  173. ^
  174. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 311.
  175. ^ İnan & Yolaç 1954, p. 48.
  176. ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 313: "The inscription on Newfoundland reads: Bu alamet ba ka bir kenardır. Portekiz kafiri bulmu tur. Tamamı bilinmemektedir. Bulunan yeri yazıimı tır (This is an indication of another shore. The Portuguese infidels discovered it. All of it is unknown. Only the places known are sketched)."
  177. ^ McIntosh 2015, pp. 307–309.
  178. ^ Soucek 2013, p. 143.
  179. ^ Soucek 2011, pp. 38–39.
  180. ^ Isom-Verhaaren 2022, pp. 88, 98.
  181. ^ Isom-Verhaaren 2022, p. 5.
  182. ^ Isom-Verhaaren 2022, pp. 88, 98.
  183. ^ Soucek 1994, p. 135.
  184. ^ a b Muhaj 2014, p. 265.
  185. ^ Sarıcaoğlu 2009, p. 120.
  186. ^ Sarıcaoğlu 2009, pp. 123–124.
  187. ^ İnan 2020, pp. V–XI.
  188. ^ Soucek 2011, pp. 40, 53, 65.
  189. ^ İnan & Yolaç 1954, p. 4.
  190. ^
  191. ^ Soucek 2013, pp. 135–144.
  192. ^ Goodrich 2004, pt. 2.
  193. ^
  194. ^ "Başbakan" 2010.
  195. ^ Pinto 2012, pp. 67–68.
  196. ^ McIntosh 2000a, pp. 53–58.
  197. ^
  198. ^ Heinrich 2001.
  199. ^ Plackett 2026, p. 59.
  200. ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 41.
  201. ^
  202. ^ Pinto 2012, pp. 65–67.

Bibliography

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